Randomised controlled trial of a parenting intervention in the voluntary sector for reducing child conduct problems: outcomes and mechanisms of change. Large group community-based parenting programs for families of preschoolers at risk for disruptive behaviour disorders: utilization, cost effectiveness, and outcome. Long-term effectiveness of a parenting intervention for children at risk of developing conduct disorder. Improving mental health through parenting programmes: block randomised controlled trial. Multicentre controlled trial of parenting groups for childhood antisocial behaviour in clinical practice. The long-term effectiveness and clinical significance of three cost-effective training programs for families with conduct-problem children. Immediate and short-term outcomes of the 'COPEing with Toddler Behaviour' parent group. Brief psychoeducational parenting program: an evaluation and 1-year follow-up. Universal parenting programme to prevent early childhood behavioural problems: cluster randomised trial.
To test effectiveness of a parenting intervention, delivered in a community-based voluntary-sector organisation, for reducing conduct problems in clinically-referred children.
                Randomised controlled trial, follow-up at 6, 18 months, assessors blind to treatment status. Participants--76 children referred for conduct problems, aged 2-9, primarily low-income families, randomised to treatment vs. 6-month wait-list group. Retention was 93% at 6 months, 90% at 18 months. Interventions--Webster-Stratton Incredible Years video-based 14-week group programme, teaches cognitive-behavioural principles for managing behaviour, using a collaborative, practical, problem-solving approach. Primary outcomes--child problem behaviour by parent-report (Eyberg) and home-based direct observation; secondary outcomes--observed positive and negative parenting; parent-reported parenting skill, confidence and depression.
                Post-treatment improvements were found in child problem behaviour, by parent-report (effect size (ES) .48, p = .05) and direct observation (ES .78, p = .02); child independent play (ES .77, p = .003); observed negative (ES .74, p = .003) and positive (ES .38, p = .04) parenting; parent-reported confidence (ES .40, p = .03) and skill (ES .65, p =.01), using ANCOVA to control for baseline scores. Maternal depression did not change. Consumer satisfaction was high. At 18-month follow-up, although no randomised comparison was possible, changes appeared to maintain, with no significant change toward baseline level on any measure. Change in observed positive parenting appeared to mediate change in child problem behaviour (p < .025).
                Findings suggest that a group-based cognitive-behavioural parenting programme, delivered by well-trained and supervised staff, can be effective in a community voluntary-sector setting, for reducing conduct problems and enhancing parenting skills. Change in parenting skill appears to be a key mechanism for change in child behaviour. Findings have implications for feasibility of translating evidence-based programmes, even for clinically-referred conduct problems, into less specialised community settings, likely to have lower costs and be more accessible for families. A significant percentage of children with disruptive behavior disorders do not receive mental health assistance. Utilization is lowest among groups whose children are at greatest risk. To increase the availability, accessibility, and cost efficacy of parent training programs, this prospective randomized trial compared a large group community-based parent training program to a clinic-based individual parent training (PT) programs. All families of junior kindergartners in the Hamilton public and separate school boards were sent a checklist regarding problems at home. Those returning questionnaires above the 90th percentile were block randomly assigned to: (1) a 12-week clinic-based individual parent training (Clinic/Individual), (2) a 12-week community-based large group parent training (Community/Group), or (3) a waiting list control condition. Immigrant families, those using English as a second language, and parents of children with severe behaviour problems were significantly more likely to enroll in Community/Groups than Clinic/Individual PT. Parents in Community/Groups reported greater improvements in behaviour problems at home and better maintenance of these gains at 6-month follow-up. A cost analysis showed that, with groups of 18 families, Community/Groups are more than six times as cost effective as Clinic/Individual programs. The typical pattern for intervention outcome studies for conduct problems has been for effect sizes to dissipate over time with decreasing effects across subsequent follow-ups.
                To establish whether the short-term positive effects of a parenting programme are sustained longer term. To observe trends, and costs, in health and social service use after intervention.
                Parents with children aged 36-59 months at risk of developing conduct disorder (n = 104) received intervention between baseline and first follow-up (6 months after baseline n = 86) in 11 Sure Start areas in North Wales. Follow-ups two (n = 82) and three (n = 79) occurred 12 and 18 months after baseline. Child problem behaviour and parenting skills were assessed via parent self-report and direct observation in the home.
                The significant parent-reported improvements in primary measures of child behaviour, parent behaviour, parental stress and depression gained at follow-up one were maintained to follow-up three, as were improved observed child and parent behaviours. Overall, 63% of children made a minimum significant change (0.3 standard deviations) on the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory problem scale between baseline and follow-up (using intention-to-treat data), 54% made a large change (0.8 standard deviations) and 39% made a very large change (1.5 standard deviations). Child contact with health and social services had reduced at follow-up three.
                Early parent-based intervention reduced child antisocial behaviour and benefits were maintained, with reduced reliance on health and social service provision, over time. To assess the effectiveness of a parenting programme, delivered by health visitors in primary care, in improving the mental health of children and their parents among a representative general practice population.
                Parents of children aged 2-8 years who scored in the upper 50% on a behaviour inventory were randomised to the Webster-Stratton 10 week parenting programme delivered by trained health visitors, or no intervention. Main outcome measures were the Eyberg Child Behaviour Inventory and the Goodman Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire to measure child behaviour, and the General Health Questionnaire, Abidin's Parenting Stress Index, and Rosenberg's Self Esteem Scale to measure parents' mental health. These outcomes were measured before and immediately after the intervention, and at six months follow up.
                The intervention was more effective at improving some aspects of the children's mental health, notably conduct problems, than the no intervention control condition. The Goodman conduct problem score was reduced at immediate and six month follow up, and the Eyberg Child Behaviour Inventory was reduced at six months. The intervention also had a short term impact on social dysfunction among parents. These benefits were seen among families with children scoring in the clinical range for behaviour problems and also among children scoring in the non-clinical (normal) range.
                This intervention could make a useful contribution to the prevention of child behaviour problems and to mental health promotion in primary care. To see whether a behaviourally based group parenting programme, delivered in regular clinical practice, is an effective treatment for antisocial behaviour in children.
                Controlled trial with permuted block design with allocation by date of referral.
                Four local child and adolescent mental health services.
                141 children aged 3-8 years referred with antisocial behaviour and allocated to parenting groups (90) or waiting list control (51).
                Webster-Stratton basic videotape programme administered to parents of six to eight children over 13-16 weeks. This programme emphasises engagement with parental emotions, rehearsal of behavioural strategies, and parental understanding of its scientific rationale.
                Semistructured parent interview and questionnaires about antisocial behaviour in children administered 5-7 months after entering trial; direct observation of parent-child interaction.
                Referred children were highly antisocial (above the 97th centile on interview measure). Children in the intervention group showed a large reduction in antisocial behaviour; those in the waiting list group did not change (effect size between groups 1.06 SD (95% confidence interval 0.71 to 1.41), P<0.001). Parents in the intervention group increased the proportion of praise to ineffective commands they gave their children threefold, while control parents reduced it by a third (effect size between groups 0.76 (0.16 to 1.36), P=0.018). If the 31 children lost to follow up were included in an intention to treat analysis the effect size on antisocial behaviour was reduced by 16%.
                Parenting groups effectively reduce serious antisocial behaviour in children in real life conditions. Follow up is needed to see if the children's poor prognosis is improved and criminality prevented. We evaluated the long-term effectiveness of three cost-effective parent training programs for conduct-problem children. One year posttreatment, 93.1% of families (94 mothers and 60 fathers) were assessed on the basis of teacher and parent reports and home observations. Results indicated that all the significant improvement reported immediately posttreatment were maintained one year later. Moreover, approximately two thirds of the entire sample showed "clinically significant" improvements. There were very few differences between the three treatment conditions except for the "consumer satisfaction" measure indicating that the treatment combining group discussion and video-tape modeling was superior to treatments without both components. Controlling, uninvolved, and rejecting parenting in early childhood are strong predictors of later disruptive behavior disorders. However, there have been no evaluations of non-targeted groups for parents of very young children, despite their potential advantages.
                We randomly assigned 79 mothers of 12- to 36-month-olds to an 8-session parent training program (called 'COPEing with Toddler Behaviour') or to a waiting list control condition. We investigated the immediate and short-term impact on parent-reported child behavior problems, observed parent-child interaction, and self-reported parenting behavior and parent functioning.
                In an intent-to-treat design, the program yielded significant effects on child behavior problems, positive parent-child interaction, and parental overreactivity and depression but not observed negative child behavior or parental laxness. Most effects were significant at both post-test and 1-month follow-up and effects sizes were small to medium for the intervention group and inverse to small for the control group.
                The potential of the program to prevent later behavior problems is supported by improvements in six of the eight outcomes. As part of a community strategy, groups such as COPEing with Toddler Behaviour may promote positive parent-child interaction and children's mental health. Despite recognition of the need for parenting interventions to prevent childhood behavioral problems, few community programs have been evaluated. This report describes the randomized controlled evaluation of a four-session psychoeducational group for parents of preschoolers with behavior problems, delivered in community agencies.
                In 1998, 222 primary caregivers, recruited through community ads, filled out questionnaires on parenting practices and child behavior. Parents were randomly assigned to immediate intervention or a wait-list control. The intervention comprised three weekly group sessions and a 1-month booster, the focus being to support effective discipline (using the video 1-2-3 Magic) and to reduce parent-child conflict.
                Using an intent-to-treat analysis, repeated-measures analyses of variance indicated that the parents who received the intervention reported significantly greater improvement in parenting practices and a significantly greater reduction in child problem behavior than the control group. The gains in positive parenting behaviors were maintained at 1-year follow-up in a subset of the experimental group.
                This brief intervention program may be a useful first intervention for parents of young children with behavior problems, as it seems both acceptable and reasonably effective. To determine whether a parenting programme, offered universally in primary care, can prevent behavioural problems in children and improve parenting and maternal mental health.
                Cluster randomised trial.
                40 primary care nursing centres (clusters) in Victoria, Australia.
                733 English speaking mothers of 8 month old children sequentially recruited from well child appointments; 656 retained at 24 months.
                Structured three session programme at age 8-15 months, co-led by well child providers and a parenting expert. The programme covered normal development and behaviour, strategies to increase desired behaviour, and strategies to reduce unwanted behaviour.
                Maternal report of child externalising behaviour (child behavior checklist 1(1/2)-5 year old), parenting (parent behavior checklist), and maternal mental health (depression anxiety stress scales) at 18 and 24 months.
                At 18 months, child behaviour and parenting scores were similar in the two groups. At 24 months, externalising scores in the intervention and control groups were similar (mean 11.9 (SD 7.2) v 12.9 (7.4)); however, on the parent behavior checklist subscale scores, intervention group parents were less likely to report harsh/abusive parenting (mean 38.9 (SD 7.7) v 40.5 (8.8); adjusted mean difference -1.83, 95% confidence interval -3.12 to -0.55) and unreasonable expectations of child development (40.9 (9.9) v 42.7 (9.6); -2.18, -3.74 to -0.62). Mean scores for nurturing parenting and maternal mental health were similar in the two groups at both times.
                A universal parenting programme resulted in modest improvement in parenting factors that predict behavioural problems in children but did not reduce externalising behavioural problems or affect maternal mental health at 2 years. Trial registration ISRCTN 77531789.
Behavioural and cognitive-behavioural group-based parenting interventions are effective and cost-effective for improving child conduct problems, parental mental health and parenting skills in the short term. The cost of programme delivery was modest when compared with the long-term health, social, educational and legal costs associated with childhood conduct problems. Further research is needed on the long-term assessment of outcomes.